Hyper-visible yet voiceless: The gendered architecture of electoral campaigns in Kenya’s rural areas

Abstract

Electoral politics in Kenya has historically reflected deep structural inequalities, especially along gender, class, and geographic lines. While participation in electoral processes has expanded since the reintroduction of multi-party democracy in the early 1990s, women, particularly those residing in rural areas, and especially due to their being an “invisible majority” continue to encounter significant barriers to meaningful political engagement. Drawing on feminist political economy and intersectional feminism literature, employing sequential exploratory mixed-methods research design, the study examined the gendered architecture of political participation in Luo Nyanza counties of Kenya. Data were collected from a survey of 378 respondents and 43 qualitative in-depth interviews and FGDs across Siaya, Kisumu, Homa Bay, and Migori counties. Sampling combined multi-stage stratified random techniques for the survey and purposive selection for the qualitative. Chi-Square, multinomial logistic regression, ordinal logistic regression, MANOVA, and PCA’s K-means clustering were employed to analyze the stratification of campaign roles (monetary contribution, strategic management, security provision, sexual entertainment, house chores, cheerleading, and mobilization) by gender and other intersecting identities (education, income, disability, and political patronage). The findings provide a strong empirical critique to the dominance of quantitative incrementalism; ideas and practices that by-and-large reduce gender progress to the mere increase in the number of elite women occupying formal leadership positions. Four key themes underpinned the findings. First, rural women are routinely assigned to none and/or largely unpaid, symbolic roles such as cheerleading, cooking, and mobilization, while men, especially politically connected and well-educated, dominate managerial and resource-based functions. Second, Chi-Square tests revealed that only political patronage significantly predicted participation in exploitative roles, such as sexual entertainment, especially among young, low-income women, showing that for rural women, closeness to power can exacerbate rather than protect against gender vulnerabilities. Third, advanced analytics revealed that gender, when combined with the other intersecting identifies exhibit consistent influence on campaign role allocation to rural-based voters. Lastly, PCA’s KMeans Clustering revealed the deeper social architecture of electoral participation in Luo Nyanza by surfacing distinct constellations of rural political participation, namely, Hybrid Performative-Strategic, Masculinized Security-Exploitative, Household Anchor, and the Hyper-Visible and Vulnerable clusters. The study concludes that meaningful gender equity in political participation must go beyond elite inclusion and consequently recommends that duty-bearers should redirect efforts and resources to the informal political economies of the rural, devise context-sensitive campaign labor regulation, and formulate civic education strategies that aim to dismantle gendered norms, affirm rural women's agency, visibility, and voice.