Household determinants of food security among leafy vegetable producers in semi-arid central Tanzania

Stephen Bishibura Erick; Twalibu Bella; Bounamax Mbasa

doi:10.51867/AQSSR.3.1.28

Authors

Stephen Bishibura Erick Institute of Rural Development Planning, Tanzania Author https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1400-9734
Twalibu Bella Institute of Rural Development Planning, Tanzania Author https://orcid.org/0009-0008-6205-3622
Bounamax Mbasa Institute of Rural Development Planning, Tanzania Author https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8072-6408

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.51867/AQSSR.3.1.28

Keywords:

Climate-Smart Agriculture, Food Security, Female-Headed Households, Gender, Household Food Insecurity, Leafy Vegetables, Smallholder Farmers, Semi-Arid Tanzania

Abstract

This study examined household-level determinants of food security among smallholder leafy vegetable producers in semi-arid central Tanzania, focusing on the roles of gender dynamics, household structure, and enabling conditions. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 385 vegetable-producing households in Dodoma City and Singida Municipal Council. Food security was measured using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and was analysed as a binary outcome (food secure versus any food insecurity). Data were analysed using hierarchical binary logistic regression. Results indicated that 52.7% of households were fully food secure, with very low prevalence of severe food insecurity, suggesting a stabilising effect of vegetable-based livelihoods. Female-headed households exhibited 55.2% lower odds of food insecurity compared to male-headed households (OR = 0.448, p < 0.001), challenging conventional assumptions about gender vulnerability. Married households had 45.8% lower odds of food insecurity (OR = 0.542, p = 0.030). High crop diversification was associated with increased food insecurity (OR = 2.473, p = 0.001), suggesting distress-driven diversification rather than a causal pathway. Climate-smart agriculture adoption showed a clear dichotomy between near-universal uptake of traditional practices and minimal adoption of technology-intensive approaches. Nearly one third of households employed vegetable-based coping strategies, predominantly distress sales, underscoring the dual role of leafy vegetables as food sources and liquid assets. The findings highlighted that household demographic characteristics, particularly gender of household head and marital status, were stronger predictors of food security than individual agricultural practices within vegetable-producing communities. Policy implications included strengthening gender-responsive agricultural interventions, investing in complementary water infrastructure, and integrating leafy vegetable production into national food security strategies.

References

Awoke, M. D., Hafner, J., Kimaro, A. A., Lana, M. A., Löhr, K., & Sieber, S. (2023). Development of an integrated assessment framework for agroforestry technologies in semi-arid Dodoma, Tanzania. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 21(1), 2285161. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2023.2285161

Awoke, M. D., Löhr, K., Kimaro, A. A., Lana, M., Soh Wenda, B. D., Buabeng, K., Hafner, J. M., & Sieber, S. (2025). Exploring gender dynamics in climate smart agriculture adoption in semi-arid Dodoma, Tanzania. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 8, 1507540. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2024.1507540

Bongole, A. J., Hella, J. P., & Bengesi, K. M. K. (2022). Combining climate smart agriculture practices pays off: Evidence from Southern Highland Zone of Tanzania. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 541798. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.541798

Bua, B., & Onang, C. (2017). Validating the role of African indigenous vegetables for food and nutrition security in Uganda. Journal of Food Science and Engineering, 7(6), 316-322. https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5828/2017.06.005

Coates, J., Swindale, A., & Bilinsky, P. (2007). Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for measurement of household food access: Indicator guide version 3. Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project, Academy for Educational Development.

https://doi.org/10.1037/e576842013-001

DFID. (1999). Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets. Department for International Development.

Egah, J., Zakari, S., Idrissou, L., Kotobiodjo, N., El Ghazi, I., Baco, M. N., & Kestemont, M. P. (2023). Eliciting the gender income influences on household's food security in West Africa. Heliyon, 9(6), e17408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17408

Erick, S. B., Mbwambo, J. S., & Salanga, R. J. (2025a). Determinants of adoption and intensity of use of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices among smallholder leafy vegetable agripreneurs in semi-arid central Tanzania. International Journal of Development and Management Review, 20(1). http://ajol.info/index.php/ijdmr/index

https://doi.org/10.4314/ijdmr.v20i1.4

Erick, S. B., Mbwambo, J. S., & Salanga, R. J. (2025b). Strengthening food security through climate smart agriculture: The case of smallholder leafy vegetable agripreneurs in semi-arid Tanzania. African Journal of Social Issues, 8(1), 89-114. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajosi.v8i1.7

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, African Union Commission, Economic Commission for Africa, & World Food Programme. (2023). Africa: Regional overview of food security and nutrition 2023. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc8743en

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2013). Climate smart agriculture sourcebook. FAO. https://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2024). Women in agriculture. FAO. https://www.fao.org/women/en

Gebreyesus, S. H., Lunde, T., Mariam, D. H., Woldehanna, T., & Lindtjørn, B. (2015). Is the adapted HFIAS valid in urban and rural households of Ethiopia? BMC Nutrition, 1, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/2055-0928-1-2

Hailemariam, A., Kalsi, J., & Mavisakalyan, A. (2024). Gender gaps in the adoption of climate‐smart agricultural practices: Evidence from sub‐Saharan Africa. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 75(2), 764-793. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12874

Integrated Food Security Phase Classification. (2024). Tanzania: Acute food insecurity situation November 2023 to April 2024. https://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/details-map/en/c/1156877/

Jones, K., Nowak, A., Berglund, E., Grinnell, W., Temu, E., Paul, B., Renwick, L. L. R., Steward, P., Rosenstock, T. S., & Kimaro, A. A. (2023). Evidence supports the potential for climate-smart agriculture in Tanzania. Global Food Security, 36, 100666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100666

Kamuzora, A. N. (2023). Effects of climate change adaptation strategies on maize productivity in Dodoma, Tanzania. East African Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 4(6), 141-153. https://doi.org/10.46606/eajess2023v04i06.0342

Kapari, M., Hlophe Ginindza, S., Nhamo, L., & Mpandeli, S. (2023). Contribution of smallholder farmers to food security and opportunities for resilient farming systems. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 7, 1149854. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1149854

Lipper, L., Thornton, P., & Campbell, B. M. (2014). Climate smart agriculture for food security. Nature Climate Change, 4(12), 1068-1072. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2437

Lutomia, C. K., Obare, G. A., Kariuki, I. M., & Muricho, G. S. (2019). Determinants of gender differences in household food security perceptions in the Western and Eastern regions of Kenya. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1694755

Mthethwa, K. N., Ngidi, M. S. C., Ojo, T. O., & Hlatshwayo, S. I. (2022). The determinants of adoption and intensity of climate-smart agricultural practices among smallholder maize farmers. Sustainability, 14(24), Article 1667. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416926

Mutengwa, C. S., Mnkeni, P., & Kondwakwenda, A. (2023). Climate-smart agriculture and food security in Southern Africa: A review of the vulnerability of smallholder agriculture and food security to climate change. Sustainability, 15(4), 2882. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15042882

National Bureau of Statistics. (2022). Tanzania population and housing census 2022: Administrative units population distribution report (Vol. 1A). National Bureau of Statistics. https://www.nbs.go.tz/nbs/takwimu/Census2022/Administrative_units_Population_Distribution_Report_Tanzania_volume1a.pdf

Nindi, D. (2024). Adoption and impact of Chololo pits technology in semi-arid agriculture: Chamwino, Dodoma, Tanzania (Master's thesis). Institute of Social Studies, The Hague. https://thesis.eur.nl/pub/75690/

Vittinghoff, E., & McCulloch, C. E. (2007). Relaxing the rule of ten events per variable in logistic and Cox regression. American Journal of Epidemiology, 165(6), 710-718. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwk052

Warning, M. (2022). The impact of distributed irrigation on smallholder food security: Evidence from Kigoma, Tanzania. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.31383.24480

World Bank. (2024). Climate-smart agriculture: From knowledge to implementation. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/climate-smart-agriculture

World Food Programme [WFP]. (2023). World Food Programme Tanzania country strategic plan (2022 to 2027). World Food Programme. https://www.wfp.org/operations/tz02-tanzania-country-strategic-plan-2022-2027

World Food Summit. (1996). Rome Declaration on World Food Security. FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/w3613e/w3613e00.htm

Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). Harper & Row.

Yusuph, A. S., Nzunda, E. F., & Mourice, S. K. (2023). Climate smart agriculture practices among sorghum and maize smallholder farmers in semi-arid areas of Tanzania. East African Journal of Agriculture and Biotechnology, 6(1), 378-405. https://doi.org/10.37284/eajab.6.1.1490

Zakaria, A., Azumah, S. B., Appiah-Twumasi, M., & Dagunga, G. (2020). Adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices among farm households in Ghana: The role of farmer participation in training programmes. Technology in Society, 63, 101396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101396