Employability skills in the 21st-century among university business graduates: A gender-based analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51867/AQSSR.3.2.29Keywords:
21st Century, Employability Skills, Gender Differences, University Business GraduatesAbstract
This study examined the employability skills possessed by university business graduates in Ghana and explored gender differences in these skills. The Individual Differences Theory anchored this study. The study used a quantitative research approach and utilized a descriptive survey research design. The population comprised all business graduates, including 921 from the School of Business and 265 from Business Education, resulting in a total population of 1,186 graduates. A sample of 330 business graduates was selected using multiple sampling techniques to ensure representativeness. Primary data were collected through a structured instrument titled the University Business Graduates’ Employability Skills Questionnaire (UBGES-Q). Both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 27. The results indicated that university business graduates possess a wide range of employability skills required by the labor market, suggesting that they are well-prepared to meet workplace expectations and enhance their employability prospects in the 21st century. Moreover, gender is associated with differences in certain employability skills among university business graduates, with male students reporting higher levels of communication and problem-solving skills. However, both male and female graduates exhibited similar levels of corporate sense skills. The study concluded that university curriculum serves not only as an academic framework but also as a vehicle for equipping graduates with practical, entrepreneurial, and adaptive skills aligned with the demands of the 21st-century labor market. The study recommended that university management should maintain and periodically review business programs to ensure alignment with labor market demands and 21st-century employability skills.
References
Abd Majid, M. Z., Hussin, M., Norman, M. H., & Kasavan, S. (2020). The employability skills among students of Public Higher Education Institution in Malaysia. Geografia, 16(1), 36-45. https://doi.org/10.17576/geo-2020-1601-04
Aboagye, B., & Puoza, J. C., (2021). Employability of mechanical engineering graduates from Sunyani Technical Universities of Ghana. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 185-205.
https://doi.org/10.21153/jtlge2021vol12no2art1002
Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121(2), 219-245. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.2.219
Ahmad, S., Wasim, S., Irfan, S., Gogoi, S., Srivastava, A., & Farheen, Z. (2019). Qualitative v/s. quantitative research-a summarized review. Population, 1(2), 2828-2832. https://doi.org/10.18410/jebmh/2019/587
Ain, C. T., Sabir, F., & Willison, J. (2019). Research skills that men and women developed at university and then used in workplaces. Studies in Higher Education, 44(12), 2346-2358. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1496412
Álamo-Vera, F. R., Hernández-López, L., Ballesteros-Rodríguez, J. L., & De Saa-Perez, P. (2020). Competence development and employability expectations: A gender perspective of mobility programmes in higher education. Administrative Sciences, 10(3), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci10030074
Aljohani, N. R., Aslam, A., Khadidos, A. O., & Hassan, S. U. (2022). Bridging the skill gap between the acquired university curriculum and the requirements of the job market: A data-driven analysis of scientific literature. Journal of Innovation and Knowledge, 7(3), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jik.2022.100190
Aljumah, A. (2023). The impact of job training on recruitment and employability skills among graduates. International Journal of Professional Business Review, 8(10), 1-32. https://doi.org/10.26668/businessreview/2023.v8i10.2806
Amaewhule, W. A., Abung, G. O., & Amadi, K. (2024). Business education graduates employability skills needed for entrepreneurship and gainful employment in Rivers State. International Journal of Advanced Research and Learning, 3(3), 82-99.
Andrews, J., & Higson, H. (2008). Graduate employability,'soft skills' versus 'hard'business knowledge: A European study. Higher Education in Europe, 33(4), 411-422. https://doi.org/10.1080/03797720802522627
Anhwere, D. (2022). Assessing the employability skills of University of Cape Coast business graduate, Ghana (Unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Business and Social Sciences Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana).
Arhin, D., Annan-Brew, R., Adu-Mensah, J., Yeboah, A., & Opoku, A. (2024). Perceived effect of covid-19 on the academic performance and satisfaction level of online teaching of sandwich students. International Journal of Positivity and Well-Being, 2(1), 12-25. https://doi.org/10.61518/ijpw-26
Atmowardoyo, H. (2018). Research methods in TEFL studies: Descriptive research, case study, error analysis, and R & D. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 9(1), 197-204. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0901.25
Bagozzi, R. P., Yi, Y., & Phillips, L. W. (1991). Assessing construct validity in organizational research. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36(3), 421-458. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393203
Basson, M., Du Plessis, T., & Brink, R. (2023). Visual representation of the mismatch between industry skills demand and higher education skills supply. International Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 24(1), 1-26.
Bennett, D., Bawa, S., Ananthram, S., & Pitman, T. (2022). Is there a gender difference in STEM students' perceived employability? Education and Training, 64(6), 754-773. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-01-2021-0029
Bhatti, M. A., Mat Saat, S. A., Aleidan, M. M., Al Murshidi, G. H. M., Alyahya, M., & Juhari, A. S. (2022). Are business graduates' employability skills and learning/teaching techniques universal? Exploring the role of culture: A comparative study among Australia, China, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. Sustainability, 14(5), 1-16.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14053069
British Council. (2016). Universities, employability and inclusive development: Repositioning higher education in Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa. British Council. Retrieved from https://www.britishcouncil.org.gh/sites/default/files/universities_employability_and_inclusive_development.pdf.
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Taylor and Francis Group Publication.
Carvalho, M., Azevedo, M., & Pacheco, L. (2026). Students and employers perceptions differential on soft skills: An analysis for university students. Industry and Higher Education, 0(0), 1-14.
https://doi.org/10.1177/09504222261423286
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2006). Intellectual competence and the intelligent personality: A third way in differential psychology. Review of General Psychology, 10(3), 251-267. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.10.3.251
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2008). Personality, intelligence and approaches to learning as predictors of academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(7), 1596-1603.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.003
Chan, L. L., & Idris, N. (2017). Validity and reliability of the instrument using exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach's alpha. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 7(10), 400-410.
https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v7-i10/3387
Check, J., & Schutt, R. K. (2011). Research methods in education. Sage publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781544307725
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539
Dominic, T., & Fulgence, K. (2019). Gender differences in enhancing students' employability skills. Orsea Journal, 9, 1-15.
Dvouletý, O., & Setthakorn, K. (2026). Labour market outcomes of business school graduates: the role of university skills. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-07-2025-0306
Edmond, V. P., Brannon, D. L., Stewart, A., & Williams, J. (2017). Gender differences in entrepreneurial leadership skills training. Global Journal of Entrepreneurship, 1(2), 32-52. https://doi.org/10.47177/GJE.01.02.2017.032
Ezeonwumelu, V. U., Offor, U. I., Nwikpo, M. N., Onunkwo, C. M., & Nwaru, P. E. (2025). Promoting inclusive education to boost entrepreneurial intentions: A catalyst for attainment of sustainable development goals. European Journal of Contemporary Education and E-Learning, 3(1), 65-76. https://doi.org/10.59324/ejceel.2025.3(1).06
Fischer, H. E., Boone, W. J., & Neumann, K. (2023). Quantitative research designs and approaches. In Handbook of Research on Science Education (pp. 28-59). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367855758-3
Fuller, C. M., Simmering, M. J., Atinc, G., Atinc, Y., & Babin, B. J. (2016). Common methods variance detection in business research. Journal of Business Research, 69(8), 3192-3198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.12.008
Ghana News Agency (GNA). (2015, March 21). British Council commissions study into why university graduates lack employment. Ghana Business News. Retrieved from: https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2015/03/21/british-council-commissions-study-into-why-university-graduates-lack-employment/.
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective. Prentice Hall.
Hajjar, S. T. (2018). Statistical analysis: Internal-consistency reliability and construct validity. International Journal of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods, 6(1), 27-38.
Herbert, I. P., Rothwell, A. T., Glover, J. L., & Lambert, S. A. (2020). Graduate employability, employment prospects and work-readiness in the changing field of professional work. The International Journal of Management Education, 18(2), 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100378
Hernandez, H. (2021). Testing for normality: What is the best method. ForsChem Research Reports, 6(5), 1-38.
Hu, Y., Schmeits, M. J., Jan van Andel, S., Verkade, J. S., Xu, M., Solomatine, D. P., & Liang, Z. (2016). A stratified sampling approach for improved sampling from a calibrated ensemble forecast distribution. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 17(9), 2405-2417. https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-15-0205.1
Ismail, I. M., Ahmad, N. A., Amiruddin, M. H., Ismail, M. E., & Harun, H. (2019). Identifying the employment skills among Malaysian vocational students: An analysis of gender differences. Journal of Technical Education and Training, 11(3), 1-6.
Izah, S. C., Sylva, L., & Hait, M. (2023). Cronbach's alpha: A cornerstone in ensuring reliability and validity in environmental health assessment. ES Energy and Environment, 23, 1-14.
https://doi.org/10.30919/esee1057
James, M., & Yun, D. (2018). Exploring student satisfaction and future employment intentions: A case study examination: is there a link between satisfaction and getting a job? Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 8(2), 117-133. https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-03-2017-0019
Johansen, V. (2013). Entrepreneurship education and start‐up activity: A gender perspective. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 5(2), 216-231. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261311328864
Kennedy, I. (2022). Sample size determination in test-retest and Cronbach alpha reliability estimates. British Journal of Contemporary Education, 2(1), 17-29. https://doi.org/10.52589/BJCE-FY266HK9
Kimaru, A. C., Misoi, M., & Githinji, R. (2023). Influence of ICT infrastructure on knowledge management in manufacturing firms in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. International Journal of Economics, Commence and Management, 11(8), 1-21.
Lazíková, J., Takáč, I., Rumanovská, Ľ., Michalička, T., & Palko, M. (2022). Which skills are the most absent among university graduates in the labour market? Evidence from Slovakia. Social Sciences, 11(10), 1-17.
https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11100438
Lievens, F., Coetsier, P., De Fruyt, F., & De Maeseneer, J. (2002). Medical students' personality characteristics and academic performance: A five‐factor model perspective. Medical Education, 36(11), 1050-1056.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2923.2002.01328.x
Lim, W. M. (2025). What is quantitative research? An overview and guidelines. Australasian Marketing Journal, 33(3), 325-348. https://doi.org/10.1177/14413582241264622
Mainga, W., Daniel, R. M., & Alamil, L. (2022). Perceptions of employability skills of undergraduate business students in a developing country: An exploratory study. Higher Learning Research Communications, 12(1), 1-36.
https://doi.org/10.18870/hlrc.2022.v12i1.1257
Mainga, W., Murphy-Braynen, M. B., Moxey, R., & Quddus, S. A. (2022). Graduate employability of business students. Administrative Sciences, 12(3), 72, 1-35. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci12030072
Malik, A., Abrar, D., Khan, N. A., & Alhussami, A. M. (2025). Sustainable development goals: Students' perception on quality education, gender equality, and sustainability. Discover Sustainability, 6(1), 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01288-5
Maqbool, F., Rafiq, S., & Anber, T. (2025). Determinants of quality education in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). The Critical Review of Social Sciences Studies, 3(3), 1963-1973. https://doi.org/10.59075/2293f477
Margolis, J., Fisher, A., & Miller, F. (2001). Caring about connection: Gender and computing. Carnegie Mellon University.
Medusalem, J. H., Ashipala, D. O., & Ntjamba, F. C. (2026). Bridging the Gap: Employer Expectations vs. Graduate Readiness. In Enhancing Graduate Employability in an Evolving Workforce (pp. 195-222). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-4450-8.ch009
Mehrad, A., & Zangeneh, M. H. T. (2019). Comparison between qualitative and quantitative research approaches: Social sciences. International Journal for Research in Educational Studies, Iran, 5(7), 1-7.
Miller, R. L., & Brewer, J. D. (2003). A-Z of Social Research. London: Longman.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020024
Mishra, P., Pandey, C. M., Singh, U., Gupta, A., Sahu, C., & Keshri, A. (2019). Descriptive statistics and normality tests for statistical data. Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia, 22(1), 67-72. https://doi.org/10.4103/aca.ACA_157_18
Moloto, A. N., Ramasimu, N. F., Motsei, L. L., & Muchie, M. (2025). Graduate Unemployment, Skills Mismatch, and the Dynamics of Labour Mobility in South Africa: A Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Applied Research in Business and Management, 6(5), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.51137/wrp.ijarbm.369
Montero, J. A. (2026). A structured guide to univariate test selection based on normality, variance homogeneity, and graphical data exploration. Journal of Surgical Research, 318, 230-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2025.10.053
Nadarajah, J. (2021). Measuring the gap in employability skills among Malaysian graduates. International Journal of Modern Trends in Social Sciences, 4(15), 81-87. https://doi.org/10.35631/IJMTSS.415007
Nardi, P. M. (2018). Doing survey research: A guide to quantitative methods. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315172231
Nyagope, T. S. (2025). From University to the World of Work: A Higher Education Curriculum response. Educatio: Journal of Education, 9(1), 40-50. https://doi.org/10.29138/educatio.v9i1.1679
Okolie, U. C., Nwosu, H. E., & Mlanga, S. (2019). Graduate employability: How the higher education institutions can meet the demand of the labour market. Higher Education, Skills and Work-based Learning, 9(4), 620-636.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-09-2018-0089
Oladele, J. I., Daramola, D. S., Jimoh, M. I., Ogunjimi, M. O., & Owolabi, H. O. (2025). Assessment of the integrated curriculum model for fostering 21st-century entrepreneurial skills and its implications for graduate employability. Ilorin Journal of Education, 45(2), 288-305.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2025). OECD skills outlook 2025: Building the skills of the 21st-century for all. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-skills-outlook-2025_26163cd3-en.html.
Osmani, M., Weerakkody, V., Hindi, N., & Eldabi, T. (2019). Graduates employability skills: A review of literature against market demand. Journal of Education for Business, 94(7), 423-432. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2018.1545629
Otache, I. (2019). Entrepreneurship education and undergraduate students' self-and paid-employment intentions: A conceptual framework. Education Training, 61(1), 46-64. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-10-2017-0148
Pereira, E. T., Vilas-Boas, M., & Rebelo, C. C. (2019). Graduates' skills and employability: the view of students from different European countries. Higher Education, Skills and Work-based Learning, 9(4), 758-774.
https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-10-2018-0098
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Qazi, A., Hasan, N., Abayomi-Alli, O., Hardaker, G., Scherer, R., Sarker, Y., Paul, S. K., & Maitama, J. Z. (2022). Gender differences in information and communication technology use and skills: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Education and Information Technologies, 27(3), 4225-4258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10775-x
Rahi, S. (2017). Research design and methods: A systematic review of research paradigms, sampling issues and instruments development. International Journal of Economics and Management Sciences, 6(2), 1-5.
Sasa, Y. (2018). Main causes of unemployment in Ghana. YEN. Retrieved from: https://yen.com.gh/109415-main-unemployment-ghana.html.
Segbenya, M., Oppong, N. Y., Nyarko, E. A., & Baafi-Frimpong, S. A. (2023). Demographic characteristics and employability skills among tertiary graduates in Ghana: Evidence from the National Service Scheme. Cogent Economics and Finance, 11(2), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2023.2225915
Septiani, S., Retnawati, H., & Arliani, E. (2022). Designing closed-ended questions into open-ended questions to support student's creative thinking skills and mathematical communication skills. JTAM (Jurnal Teori Dan Aplikasi Matematika), 6(3), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.31764/jtam.v6i3.8517
Shabangu, N., & Madondo, N. E. (2024, December). Addressing graduate unemployment: Aligning higher education curricula with labour market demands. In The Focus Conference (TFC 2024) (pp. 74-87). Atlantis Press.
https://doi.org/10.2991/978-94-6463-630-7_5
Siedlecki, S. L. (2020). Understanding descriptive research designs and methods. Clinical Nurse Specialist, 34(1), 8-12.
https://doi.org/10.1097/NUR.0000000000000493
Sikubwabo, C., Rukundo, D., Ruhumuriza, G., & Mukunzi, D. (2024). Transitioning from academia to workforce: addressing the challenges faced by university graduates in securing employments in the labor market. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology (AJEST), 7(4), 1-10.
Singh, A., & Blessinger, P. (2024). The new future and the employment imperative: effectively aligning student interest, industry needs and university programmes. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 16(2), 469-482.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-09-2022-0285
Sloane, P. J. M. (2020). Overeducation, skill mismatches, and labor market outcomes for college graduates. IZA World of Labor. Retrieved from: https://wol.iza.org/articles/overeducation-skill-mismatches-and-labor-market-outcomes-for-college-graduates/long.
Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Culture and intelligence. American Psychologist, 59(5), 325-338.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.5.325
Stuart, M., Lido, C., Morgan, J., Solomon, L., & May, S. (2011). The impact of engagement with extracurricular activities on the student experience and graduate outcomes for widening participation populations. Active Learning in Higher Education, 12(3), 203-215. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787411415081
Sukserm, P. (2024). Determining the appropriate sample size in EFL pilot studies. Journal of Research Methodology, 37(3), 245-264.
Ul Hassan, M., Murtaza, A., & Rashid, K. (2025). Redefining higher education institutions (HEIs) in the era of globalisation and global crises: A proposal for future sustainability. European Journal of Education, 60(1), 1-19.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12822
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2022). Reshaping policies for creativity: Addressing culture as a global public good. UNESCO. Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387698.
World Economic Forum. (2025). The future of jobs report 2025. World Economic Forum. Retrieved from: https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-future-of-jobs-report-2025/.
Yahui, S., & Dagogo, B. H. (2025). University graduates and employment challenges: causes, impacts, and countermeasures. Peta International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 4(3), 63-78.
https://doi.org/10.59088/pij.v4i3.81
Yong, B. P. P., & Ling, Y. L. (2023). Skills gap: the perceptions of importance of soft skills in graduate employability between employers and graduates. Journal of Techno-Social, 15(1), 16-33.
https://doi.org/10.30880/jts.2023.15.01.002
Zhou, X., Wolstencroft, P., Schofield, L. N., & Fang, L. (2025). Are graduates digitally unprepared?-A digital technology gap analysis from alumni and employer's perspectives. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 41(4), 1-13.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Daniel Kweku Anhwere, Gabriel Kwasi Aboagye, Emmanuel Quayson, Theophilus Kwamena Ocran (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
