Institutional Frameworks and Household Clean Water Accessibility in Peri-Urban Communities of Northern Tanzania: A Case of the Suburban Ward

Mwahija Ngayaga; Paschal Nade; Mwemezi J. Rwiza; Asha S. Ripanda

doi:10.51867/AQSSR.2.2.18

Authors

Mwahija Ngayaga School of Business Studies and Humanities, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania; Department of Education Secondary Schools, Muungano Usa River Secondary School, P.O. Box 158, Meru, Arusha, Tanzania Author https://orcid.org/0009-0008-7647-505X
Paschal Nade School of Business Studies and Humanities, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania Author https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3973-5701
Mwemezi J. Rwiza School of Materials, Energy, Water and Environmental Sciences, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania Author https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5526-444X
Asha S. Ripanda Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, The University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania Author https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2316-6962

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.51867/AQSSR.2.2.18

Keywords:

Clean Water, Environmental Factors, Flood, Factors of Clean Water, Pollution, Regulatory Determinants

Abstract

The lack of clean water contributes to the transmission of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid, particularly among vulnerable populations. This situation threatens public health, especially in resource-limited settings. Various regulatory and environmental factors, including bylaws and policies, water tariffs, electricity access, flooding, infrastructure conditions, pollution, and drought, significantly impact access to clean water by influencing the availability and quality of water resources. This study examines the regulatory environment factors affecting access to clean water in peri-urban communities reliant on piped systems, focusing on household clean water availability in northern Tanzania. Based on the Mary Douglas's Cultural Theory, the study adopted a cross-sectional design to collect quantitative data. Questionnaires were administered to a purposive sample of 353 respondents drawn from a target population of 10,965 individuals from 3,030 households, all aged 18 years or older. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics with the aid of SPSS software. Qualitative data was collected from key informants through interviews and analysed thematically. The results revealed that 51% were aware of the water and environmental policies, 84.7% participated in meetings, 23.2% paid water bills, and access to clean water throughout the year was challenging. The chi-square test indicated a significant relationship (χ² = 48.118, df = 12, p = 0.000) between institutional frameworks and clean water accessibility. Additionally, planting trees and properly managing water sources contribute to the protection of water resources. Educating the community and protecting water sources play a significant role in preserving ecological health and ensuring the sustainability of communities. The study concludes that there is a relationship between regulatory frameworks and clean water accessibility in northern Tanzania. The study recommends continuous provision of education and awareness programs focused on the effective use, management, and protection of water sources to ensure public health and clean water accessible sustainability.

References

Aborode, A. T., Otorkpa, O. J., Abdullateef, A. O., Oluwaseun, O. S., Adegoye, G. A., Aondongu, N. J., Oyetunji, I. O., Akingbola, A., Scott, G. Y., Kolawole, B. O., & Komakech, J. J. (2025). Impact of Climate Change-Induced Flooding Water Related Diseases and Malnutrition in Borno State, Nigeria: A Public Health Crisis. Environ Health Insights, 19, 11786302251321683. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786302251321683 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/11786302251321683

Adam, A. M. (2020). Sample Size Determination in Survey Research. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, 26(5), 90-97. https://doi.org/10.9734/jsrr/2020/v26i530263 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jsrr/2020/v26i530263

Aklilu, T., Sahilu, G., & Ambelu, A. (2024). Public health risks associated with drinking water consumption in the upper Awash River sub-basin, Ethiopia, sub-Saharan Africa. Heliyon, 10(3), e24790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24790 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24790

Alvarado, J., Siqueiros-Garcia, J. M., Ramos-Fernandez, G., Garcia-Meneses, P. M., & Mazari-Hiriart, M. (2022). Barriers and bridges on water management in rural Mexico: from water-quality monitoring to water management at the community level. Environimental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(12), 912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10616-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10616-5

Anang, Z., Yusop, Z., Sharma, A. K., & Otoum, A. (2024). Sustainable Water Consumption Patterns and Factors: A Case Study of Income-Related Water Security. Environmental Research, Engineering and Management, 80(2), 56-74. https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.80.2.34642 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.80.2.34642

Aragaw, F. M., Merid, M. W., Tebeje, T. M., Erkihun, M. G., & Tesfaye, A. H. (2023). Unimproved source of drinking water and its associated factors: a spatial and multilevel analysis of Ethiopian demographic and health survey. BMC Public Health, 23, 1455. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16354-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16354-8

Auma, B., Musinguzi, M., Ojuka, E., Kigongo, E., Tumwesigye, R., Acup, W., Kabunga, A., & Opio, B. (2024). Prevalence of diarrhea and water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) associated factors among children under five years in Lira City Northern Uganda: Community based study. PLoS One, 19(6), e0305054. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305054

Baddianaah, I., Dongzagla, A., Salifu, S. N., & You, S. (2024). Navigating access to safe water by rural households in sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from north-western Ghana. Sustainable Environment, 10(1), 2303803. https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2024.2303803 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2024.2303803

Baltrocchi, A. P. D., Carnevale Miino, M., Katsoyiannis, I. A., Tolkou, A. K., Maggi, L., Rada, E. C., & Torretta, V. (2024). Assessment of environmental sustainability of drinking water treatments for arsenic removal. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 211, 107878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107878 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107878

Bazaanah, P., & Mothapo, R. A. (2023). Sustainability of drinking water and sanitation delivery systems in rural communities of the Lepelle Nkumpi Local Municipality, South Africa. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 26, 14223-14255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03190-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03190-4

Burt, Z., Njee, R. M., Mbatia, Y., Msimbe, V., Brown, J., Clasen, T. F., Malebo, H. M., & Ray, I. (2017). User preferences and willingness to pay for safe drinking water: Experimental evidence from rural Tanzania. Social Science & Medicine, 173, 63-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.11.031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.11.031

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2023). RESEARCH DESIGN, Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches Sixth Edition (L. Fargotstein, Ed.). SAGE. https://doi.org/lccn.loc.gov/2022032270 (SAGE Publications, Inc.)

Cullmann, A., Rechlitz, J., Sundermann, G., & Wägner, N. (2024). External costs of water pollution in the drinking water supply sector. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12490 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12490

George-Williams, H. E. M., Hunt, D. V. L., & Rogers, C. D. F. (2024). Sustainable Water Infrastructure: Visions and Options for Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability, 16(4), 1592. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16041592 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16041592

Glade, S., & Ray, I. (2022). Safe drinking water for small low-income communities: the long road from violation to remediation. Environmental Research Letters, 17(4), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac58aa DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac58aa

Joshua, M. D., Tompkins, E., Schreckenberg, K., Ngongondo, C., Gondwe, E., & Chiotha, S. (2022). Water policy and resilience of potable water infrastructure to climate risks in rural Malawi. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 127, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103155 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103155

Kabote, S. J. (2024). The implication of water accessibility challenges to urban water governance in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania. Heliyon, 10(6), e28194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28194 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28194

Kapaya, F., Keita, M., Sodjinou, V. D., Nanyunja, M., Mpairwe, A., Daniel, E. O., Akpan, G., Mlanda, T., S, O. T., Abianuru, A. T., Mamadu, I., Masina, J., Ladu, A. I., Dratibi, F. A., Ramadan, O. P. C., Braka, F., Koua, E. L., Barboza, P., Chamla, D., & Gueye, A. S. (2025). An assessment of the progress made in the implementation of the regional framework for cholera prevention and control in the WHO African region. BMJ Glob Health, 10(1), 016168. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2024-016168 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2024-016168

Koehlera, J., Steve Raynerb, Jacob Katuvaa, Patrick Thomsona, & Hopea, R. (2018). A cultural theory of drinking water risks, values and institutional change. Global Environmental Change, 50, 268-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.03.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.03.006

Koua, E. L., Moussana, F. H., Sodjinou, V. D., Kambale, F., Kimenyi, J. P., Diallo, S., Okeibunor, J., & Gueye, A. S. (2025). Exploring the burden of cholera in the WHO African region: patterns and trends from 2000 to 2023 cholera outbreak data. BMJ Glob Health, 10(1), 016491. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2024-016491 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2024-016491

Kumar Ds, S., Guthi, V. R., Kondagunta, N., & Kr, S. (2024). Determinants of Access to Improved Drinking Water Source and Sanitation Facilities Towards Achieving Sustainable Development Goal-6 in India: Results from National Family Health Survey-5 (2019-2021). National Journal of Community Medicine, 15(08), 632-641. https://doi.org/10.55489/njcm.150820244018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.55489/njcm.150820244018

Libanda, B., Rand, E., Gyang, G. N., Sindano, C. T., Simwanza, L., & Chongo, M. (2024). Recent and future exposure of water, sanitation, and hygiene systems to climate-related hazards in Zambia. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 15(3), 958-977. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2024.392 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2024.392

Ma, H., Chao, L., Wan, H., & Zhu, Q. (2024). Microplastic Pollution in Water Systems: Characteristics and Control Methods. Diversity, 16(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16010070 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/d16010070

Madrigal-Ballestero, R., Mullan, K., Pacay, E., Pattanayak, S. K., Robalino, J., & Evia, P. (2024). Volumetric pricing in rural Central America: Drivers of adoption and potential effects on water delivery. World Development Sustainability, 4, 100163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wds.2024.100163 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wds.2024.100163

Mapuka, F. N., Nel, W., & Kalumba, A. M. (2024). Exploring household water conservation methods in rural South Africa: a case of the Mbhashe and Mnquma local municipalities. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 10(4), 145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-024-01127-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-024-01127-x

Meran, G., Siehlow, M., & Hirschhausen, C. v. (2021). The Economics of Water: Rules and Institutions. Springer https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48485-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48485-9

Miraji, H., Eunice, M., Ripanda, A., Ngassapa, F., & Chande, O. (2023). Naturally occurring emerging contaminants: Where to hide? HydroResearch, 6, 203-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2023.05.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2023.05.002

Miraji, H., Ripanda, A., & Moto, E. (2021). A review on the occurrences of persistent organic pollutants in corals, sediments, fish and waters of the Western Indian Ocean. The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 47(4), 373-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2021.08.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2021.08.003

Moto, E., Hossein, M., Bakari, R., Mateso, A. S., Selemani, J. R., Nkrumah, S., Ripanda, A., Rwiza, M. J., Nyanza, E. C., & Machunda, R. L. (2024). Ecological consequences of microplastic pollution in sub-Saharan Africa aquatic ecosystems: An implication to environmental health. HydroResearch, 7, 39-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2023.11.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2023.11.003

Munissi, H. S., & Mwalilino, J. K. (2024). Knowledge and Practices on Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Waterborne Diseases among under-Five Children in Temeke District, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania. Asian Research Journal of Arts & Social Sciences, 22(4), 53-71. https://doi.org/10.9734/arjass/2024/v22i4529 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/arjass/2024/v22i4529

Mwale, M., Chipimo, P. J., Kalubula, P., Hibusu, L., Mulima, S. M. C., Kapema, K., Mwangilwa, K., Mbewe, N., & Kapaya, F. (2025). Building resilience against cholera: lessons from the implementation of integrated community strategy for cholera control in Zambia. BMJ Glob Health, 10(1), e017055. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2024-017055 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2024-017055

NAWAPO. (2002). United Republic of Tanzania: National Water Policy - July 2002. In Ministry of Water and Livestock Development https://www.policyvault.africa/policy/the-national-water-policy-2002/ Accessed 10 April 2025

NAWAPO. (2025). NATIONAL WATER POLICY 2002 VERSION 2025. In. Dodoma: Ministry of Water. https://www.maji.go.tz/uploads/publications/sw1742701826-NATIONAL%20WATER%20POLICY.pdf Acced 20 April 2025.

Ngayaga, M., Ripanda, A. S., Nade, P. B., & Rwiza, M. J. (2025). Economic Factors Influencing Household Access to Clean Water in a Peri-Urban Area of Northern Tanzania Open Journal of Social Sciences, 13(4), 565-586. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2025.134033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2025.134033

Nguea, S. M. (2024). Uncovering the linkage between sustainable development goals for access to electricity and access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation services. Social Science & Medicine, 345, 116687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116687 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116687

Ogunbode, T. O., Odusina, E. K., Oyebamiji, V. O., Owoeye, M. O., & Afolabi, C. O. (2024). Estimating domestic water usage in a tropical environment: exploring socio-demographic perspectives. Environmental Research Communications, 6(3), 035023. https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ad33eb DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ad33eb

Olutumise, A. I. (2024). Preference for water sources and agricultural utilisation among rural households: a case of Akoko district of Ondo State, Nigeria. Discover Water, 4(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-024-00148-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-024-00148-z

Pinto, D., Savedoff, W., & Bauhoff, S. (2024). Social Determinants of Health: A Health-Centered Approach to Multi-Sectoral Action. In IDB (Ed.), Inter-American Development Bank Social Protection and Health Division. https://publications.iadb.org/publications/english/document/sph-social-determinant-of-health-vf-editor.pdf Accessed 17 April 2025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18235/0013155

https://doi.org/10.18235/0013155

Ripanda, A. S., Rwiza, M. J., Nyanza, E. C., Miraji, H., Bih, N. L., Mzula, A., Mwega, E., Njau, K. N., Vuai, S. A. H., & Machunda, R. L. (2023). Antibiotic-resistant microbial populations in urban receiving waters and wastewaters from Tanzania. Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, 5, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2022.10.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2022.10.003

Ripanda, A. S., Rwiza, M. J., Nyanza, E. C., Njau, K. N., Vuai, S. A. H., & Machunda, R. L. (2021). A Review on Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Environment: A Focus on Active Chemicals in Sub-Saharan Africa. Applied Sciences, 12(56). https://doi.org/10.3390/app12010056 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app12010056

Sahoo, S. K., & Goswami, S. S. (2024). Theoretical framework for assessing the economic and environmental impact of water pollution: A detailed study on sustainable development of India. Journal of Future Sustainability, 4(1), 23-34. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.jfs.2024.1.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5267/j.jfs.2024.1.003

Shemer, H., Wald, S., & Semiat, R. (2023). Challenges and Solutions for Global Water Scarcity. Membranes (Basel), 13(6), 612. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13060612 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13060612

Soeters, S., Siscawati, M., Ratnasari, Anggriani, S., Nailah, & Willetts, J. (2021). Gender equality in the government water, sanitation, and hygiene workforce in Indonesia: an analysis through the Gender at Work framework. Development Studies Research, 8(1), 280-293. https://doi.org/10.1080/21665095.2021.1978300 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21665095.2021.1978300

Sulley, B. A., Chisanza, J. J., & Lesso, T. O. (2023). The Status of Domestic Water Supply and its Implications: A Case of Kondoa District Council, Tanzania. East African Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 4(2), 109-118. https://doi.org/10.46606/eajess2023v04i02.0282 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46606/eajess2023v04i02.0282

Talema, A. (2023). Causes, negative effects, and preventive methods of water pollution in Ethiopia. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods, 15(2), 129-139. https://doi.org/10.15586/qas.v15i2.1271 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15586/qas.v15i2.1271

Terefe, B., Jembere, M. M., & Assimamaw, N. T. (2024). Access to drinking safe water and its associated factors among households in East Africa: a mixed effect analysis using 12 East African countries recent national health survey. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 43(1), 72. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-024-00562-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-024-00562-y

Tomasek, I., Mouri, H., Dille, A., Bennett, G., Bhattacharya, P., Brion, N., Elskens, M., Fontijn, K., Gao, Y., Gevera, P. K., Ijumulana, J., Kisaka, M., Leermakers, M., Shemsanga, C., Walraevens, K., Wragg, J., & Kervyn, M. (2022). Naturally occurring potentially toxic elements in groundwater from the volcanic landscape around Mount Meru, Arusha, Tanzania and their potential health hazard. Sci Total Environ, 807(Pt 1), 150487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150487 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150487

Tshona, S. S., Lungisa, S., & Mgweba, L. (2025). Thirsting for solutions: Unpacking inadequate water provision in rural communities. Africa's Public Service Delivery & Performance Review, 13(1), a873. https://doi.org/10.4102/apsdpr.v13i1.873 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/apsdpr.v13i1.873

UN. (2023). The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2023: Special edition, Towards a Rescue Plan for People and Planet. In. https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-07/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2023_0.pdf Accessed 10 April 2025

UN. (2024). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. In A. Guterres (Ed.), United Nations. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2024.pdf Accesed 09 April 2025

UNESCO. (2022). Youth and Water Security in Africa. In (pp. 410): UNESCO Publishing. https://books.google.co.tz/books/about/Youth_and_water_Security_in_Africa.html?id=e29yEAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y Accessed 10 April 2024

UNICEF/WHO. (2017). Safely Managed Drinking Water. In World Health Organization. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/325897/9789241565424-eng.pdf?sequence=1 Accessed 4 May 2025

URT-MoW. (2024). Hotuba ya waziri wa Maji Mhe. Jumaa Hamidu Aweso (mb), akiwasilisha bungeni makadirio ya mapato na matumizi ya fedha ya Wizara ya maji kwa mwaka 2024/25. https://www.maji.go.tz/uploads/speeches/docs/sw1717666882-hotuba%202024-2025.pdf Accessed 9 April 2025

URT-RUWASA. (2022). Guidelines on Regulation of Community Water Service Management: September; 2022.https://www.ruwasa.go.tz/images/resources/files/GUIDELINES%20REGULATIONS%20FOR%20COMMUNITY%20WATER%20SERVICE.pdf Accessed 9 April 2025

URT-WATER-ACT. (2019). The Water Supply and Sanitation Act, 2019. In The Government Printer, Dodoma by Order of Government (Vol. 100). https://www.ruwasa.go.tz/images/resources/files/5.%20THE%20WATER%20SUPPLY%20AND%20SANITATION%20ACT,%202019%20FINAL%2026TH%20FEBRUARY%202019%20(3).pdf Accessed 10 April 2025

URT. (2022). Administrative Units Population Distribution Report Tanzania Mainland: Ministry of Finance and Planning, National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania and Presidents' Office Finance and Planning office of the Chief Government Statistician Zanzibar. In The United Republic of Tanzania (Vol. 1B). https://www.nbs.go.tz/uploads/statistics/documents/en-1705484561-Administrative_units_Population_Distribution_Report_Tanzania_Mainland_volume1b.pdf Accessed 13 April 2025

URT/ewura. (2025). WATER UTILITIES PERFORMANCE REVIEW REPORT FOR FINANCIAL YEAR 2023/24. In.https://www.ewura.go.tz/uploads/documents/en-1743160797-Water%20Utilities%20Performance%20Review%20Report%202023-24%20Final.pdf Accessed 04 April 2025

Vele, L., Ubomba‐Jaswa, E., & Edokpayi, J. N. (2024). Perception and acceptability of the public towards the use of harvested rainwater in water scarce regions. Water and Environment Journal, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12944 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12944

WHO. (2024). World health statistics 2024; Monitoring health for the SDGs, Sustainable Development Goals. In: World Health Organization. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/376869/9789240094703-eng.pdf?sequence=1 Accessed 10 April 2025

WHO/UNICEF. (2023). Progress On Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene 2000-2022: Special Focus Gender Launch Vision. In United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO). https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240076921 Accessed 9 April 2025

Winkler, I. T., Sarango, M., Senier, L., & Harlan, S. L. (2023). The high health risks of unaffordable water: An in-depth exploration of pathways from water bill burden to health-related impacts in the United States. PLOS Water, 2(3), e0000077. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000077 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000077

Wu, J. (2024). The Role of Affordability on the Adoption of Residential Point-of-Use Drinking Water Filtering Systems in China. Sustainability, 16, 623. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020623 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020623

Yanti, F., Jayadipraja, E. A., Kandari, M., Rahmawati, R., & Amasyah, M. (2025). Factors Related to The Family Latrine Use Coverage in Sabilambo Village Kolaka District. Public Health of Indonesia, 11(S1), 14-19. https://doi.org/10.36685/phi.v11iS1.852 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36685/phi.v11iS1.852

Young, S. L., Boateng, G. O., Jamaluddine, Z., Miller, J. D., Frongillo, E. A., Neilands, T. B., Collins, S. M., Wutich, A., Jepson, W. E., Stoler, J., & Network, H. R. C. (2019). The Household Water InSecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale: development and validation of a household water insecurity measure for low-income and middle-income countries. BMJ Glob Health, 4(5), e001750. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001750 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001750

Zhao, W., Jiang, J., Liu, M., Tu, T., Wang, L., & Zhang, S. (2024). Exploring correlations between microplastics, microorganisms, and water quality in an urban drinking water source. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 275, 116249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116249 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116249