Agricultural extension service accessibility under decentralised governance: Evidence from smallholder sunflower farmers in Dodoma and Singida regions, Tanzania
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51867/AQSSR.2.4.70Keywords:
Agricultural Extension Services, Decentralized Governance, Extension Service Accessibility, Smallholder Sunflower Farmers, TanzaniaAbstract
Despite significant investments in agricultural extension systems in Tanzania, a critical research gap persists regarding the effectiveness of decentralised models for delivering extension services to marginalised smallholder farmers. Drawing on access and decentralisation theories, the study employed a cross-sectional research design to examine agricultural extension services' (AES) accessibility across districts and genders in the Dodoma and Singida regions of Tanzania. The target population comprised smallholder sunflower farmers across selected districts, and a sample size of 385 farmers was selected through multistage sampling techniques comprising purposive selection of districts and random sampling of farming households. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and analysed using descriptive statistics, an accessibility index derived from factor analysis, a χ² test, ANOVA and ordinal logistic regression. Findings revealed disparity in AES accessibility across districts, while across sex it was not. Conversely, findings further indicate that farmers’ education, farm experience and frequency of extension visits positively predicted AES accessibility, whereas greater distance to extension centres was associated with lower accessibility. The findings suggest that decentralised extension service delivery exhibits uneven outreach of services across districts, particularly those with resource constraints. Hence, it recommends that the government allocate extension agents based on needs to ensure districts with low accessibility receive proportionately greater support, integrate adult literacy programmes within extension frameworks and leverage experienced farmers as peer educators through farmer field schools to promote extension services. This study contributes novel insights into extension service accessibility under decentralised governance structures, as it provides evidence-based recommendations for policymakers and development practitioners seeking to enhance agricultural transformation outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa.
References
Abdulwahid, N., Bakari, L., Hussein, A., Kawa, S. K., Lavoe, F., Mwisomba, T., Msuha, B., & Wineman, A. (2024). Spillover effects of medium- and large-scale farms on smallholder farmers in Tanzania: Evidence from the National Sample Census of Agriculture 2019/20. World Development Perspectives, 34(C), Article 100590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2024.100590 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2024.100590
Adamsone-Fiskovica, A., & Grivins, M. (2022). Knowledge production and communication in on-farm demonstrations: Putting farmer participatory research and extension into practice. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 28(4), 479-502. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2021.1953551 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2021.1953551
Agwu, A. E., Suvedi, M., Chanza, C., Davis, K., Oywaya-Nkurumwa, A., Najjingo Mangheni, M., & Sasidhar, P. (2023). Agricultural extension and advisory services in Nigeria, Malawi, South Africa, Uganda, and Kenya. Partnerships for Innovative Research in Africa (PIRA) Research Report. Alliance for African Partnership, Michigan State University.
Amirrudin, M., Nasution, K., & Supahar, S. (2021). Effect of variability on Cronbach alpha reliability in research practice. Jurnal Matematika, Statistika dan Komputasi, 17(2), 223-230. https://doi.org/10.20956/jmsk.v17i2.11655 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20956/jmsk.v17i2.11655
Arif, H. (2024). Accessibility of agricultural extension services and its impact on agricultural output: A case study of Zambia [Master's dissertation, University of Pretoria].
Azzarri, C., & Nico, G. (2022). Sex-disaggregated agricultural extension and weather variability in Africa south of the Sahara. World Development, 155, 105897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105897
Coolsaet, B., Dawson, N., Rabitz, F., & Lovera, S. (2020). Access and allocation in global biodiversity governance: A review. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 20(2), 359-375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-020-09476-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-020-09476-6
De Jong, J., & Fernandez-Monge, F. (2020). The state of access in cities: Theory and practice. In Governance for urban services: Access, participation, accountability, and transparency (pp. 31-56). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2973-3_2
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2973-3_2
FAO. (2021). World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020: Main results and updates. Food and Agriculture Organization.
FAO. (2023). The status of women in agrifood systems. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5060en
Graetz, E. E. (2022). Two wave missing data with refreshment sample and free knot spline in semiparametric regression (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Chicago).
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). (2021). Smallholders and family farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa: Regional facts and figures. IFAD.
Justine, P., Csorba, Á., Ocansey, C. M., Rotich, B., Maket, I., Lameck, A. S., & Gelsleichter, Y. A. (2025). Awareness and adoption strategies for improved agricultural practices (IAPs) by smallholder farmers in the Mbeya Region, Tanzania. Discover Sustainability, 6(1), 198. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-00970-y
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-00970-y
Kauky, M. S. (2024). Role of agricultural extension services (AES) on farm productivity and household food security in Tanzania. The African Review, 1(aop), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1163/1821889x-bja10105 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/1821889x-bja10105
Kelil, A., & Girma, Y. (2021). Econometric analysis of dairy farmer's access to agricultural information in Ada'a District. J Agri Sci, 12, 280.
Kessy, A. T. (2020). The demand and supply sides of accountability in local government authorities in Tanzania. Public Integrity, 22(6), 606-625. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2020.1739361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2020.1739361
Khatri, A., Lallawmkimi, M. C., Rana, P., Panigrahi, C. K., Minj, A., Koushal, S., & Ali, M. U. (2024). Integration of ICT in agricultural extension services: A review. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 46(12), 394-410. https://doi.org/10.9734/jeai/2024/v46i123146 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jeai/2024/v46i123146
Kibrom, A., Haimanot, A., Tigist, P., & Beyene, D. (2025). The challenges of extension service delivery and its determinants in the agricultural extension system: An insight from a study in north-western Ethiopia. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 53(1), 16-38. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2025/v53n1a17189 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2025/v53n1a17189
Kingu, D. G., Msuya, C. P., & Kalungwizi, V. J. (2024). Institutional factors influencing sunflower productivity in Mkalama District. European Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences, 6(2), 26-32. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejfood.2024.6.2.764 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24018/ejfood.2024.6.2.764
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607-610. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
Kurniasari, N., & Herlina, E. (2022). Education level, infrastructure, and capacity building on the performance of agricultural extenders at the food security and agricultural services. Journal of Resource Management, Economics and Business, 1(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.58468/remics.v1i1.7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.58468/remics.v1i1.7
Lameck, W. U., & Hulst, R. (2021). Upward and downward accountability in local government: The decentralisation of agricultural extension services in Tanzania. Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance, 6(25), 20-39. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5130/cjlg.vi25.6472
https://doi.org/10.5130/cjlg.vi25.6472
Lameck, W. U., & Kinemo, S. (2021). In search of a link between fiscal decentralization and fiscal autonomy in service delivery in urban local government authorities in Tanzania. Journal of Governance and Development, 17(2), 23-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32890/jgd2021.17.2.2
https://doi.org/10.32890/jgd2021.17.2.2
Langenberg, B., Helm, J. L., & Mayer, A. (2022). Repeated measures ANOVA with latent variables to analyze interindividual differences in contrasts. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 57(1), 2-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2020.1803038 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2020.1803038
Loki, O., Aliber, M., & Sikwela, M. M. (2021). Assessment of socio-economic characteristics that determine farmers' access to agricultural extension services in Eastern Cape, South Africa. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 49(1), 198-209. https://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2021/v49n1a10908 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2021/v49n1a10908
Mabel, O. A., & Olayemi, O. S. (2020). A comparison of principal component analysis, maximum likelihood and the principal axis in factor analysis. American Journal of Mathematics and Statistics, 10(2), 44-54.
Magesa, M., Jonathan, J., & Urassa, J. (2023). Digital literacy of smallholder farmers in Tanzania. Sustainability, 15(17), 13149. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151713149 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su151713149
Mahama, S. W., Abudu, J. I., Damwah, A. K., & Arhin, E. T. (2024). Influence of communication on smallholder farmers' adoption of agriculture innovations in Damongo of the Savannah region of Ghana. African Journal of Empirical Research, 5(4), 1278-1295. https://doi.org/10.51867/ajernet.5.4.105 DOI: https://doi.org/10.51867/ajernet.5.4.105
Maina, K. W., Ritho, C. N., Lukuyu, B. A., & Rao, E. J. (2020). Socio-economic determinants and impact of adopting climate-smart Brachiaria grass among dairy farmers in Eastern and Western regions of Kenya. Heliyon, 6(6), e04335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04335 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04335
Mapesa, J. M. (2020). The effect of local government reform programme on enhancing farmers' demand for reformed extension services in Kongwa, Bahi, Bukombe and Geita districts in Tanzania [Doctoral dissertation, Sokoine University of Agriculture].
Masanja, I., Shausi, G. L., & Kalungwizi, V. J. (2023). Factors influencing rural farmers' access to agricultural extension services provided by private organizations in Kibondo District, Tanzania. European Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences, 5(5), 115-122. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejfood.2023.5.5.722 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24018/ejfood.2023.5.5.722
Masanyiwa, M. S., Namwata, B., & Safar, J. (2019). Decentralization by devolution and farmers' access to agricultural extension services in Dodoma, Tanzania. Asian Journal of Agricultural Science, 10(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.19026/ajas.10.5982 DOI: https://doi.org/10.19026/ajas.10.5982
Midamba, D. C., & Ouko, K. O. (2024). Gender disparities in agricultural extension among smallholders in Western Uganda. Cogent Economics & Finance, 12(1), 2391938. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2024.2391938 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2024.2391938
Midamba, D. C., Muteti, F. N., Mpofu, T. P., Ouko, K. O., Kwesiga, M., Ouya, F. O., & Chepkoech, B. (2022). Socio-economic factors influencing access to agricultural extension services among smallholder farmers in Western Uganda. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 40, 998-1008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2022/v40i1031172
https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2022/v40i1031172
Midway, S., Robertson, M., Flinn, S., & Kaller, M. (2020). Comparing multiple comparisons: Practical guidance for choosing the best multiple comparisons test. PeerJ, 8, e10387. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10387 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10387
Mujama, R. M., & Uchiyama, T. (2021). Farmers' perception on contract farming: A case of sunflower seed crop in Central Tanzania. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 12(2), 65-70.
Mwangi, J., Chitere, P., & Kariuki, J. (2023). Determinants of smallholder farmers' access to agricultural extension channels and their effects on awareness compliance with good agricultural practices in Kenya. International Journal of Agricultural Management and Development, 13(4), 273-288.
Nagar, A., Nauriyal, D. K., & Singh, S. (2021). Determinants of farmers' access to extension services and adoption of technical inputs: Evidence from India. Universal Journal of Agricultural Research, 9(4), 127-137. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujar.2021.090404 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13189/ujar.2021.090404
Nanda, A., Mohapatra, B. B., Mahapatra, A. P. K. (2021). Multiple comparison test by Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD): Do the confident level control type I error. International Journal of Statistics and Applied Mathematics, 6(1), 59-65. https://doi.org/10.22271/maths.2021.v6.i1a.636 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/maths.2021.v6.i1a.636
National Bureau of Statistics. (2021). National Sample Census of Agriculture 2019/20: Key findings report. Government of Tanzania.
National Bureau of Statistics. (2022). Poverty and inequality in Tanzania: Mainland report 2022. Ministry of Finance and Planning.
Nchanji, E. B., Ndunguru, A., Kabungo, C., Katunzi, A., Nyamolo, V., Ouya, F. O., ... & Lutomia, C. K. (2025). Assessing gender disparities in farmers' access and use of climate-smart agriculture in Southern Tanzania. Discover Sustainability, 6(1), 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01150-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01150-8
Nkonki-Mandleni, B., Manenzhe, N. G., & Omotayo, A. O. (2022). Factors influencing the adoption of conservation agriculture by smallholder farmers in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Open Agriculture, 7(1), 596-604. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0098
https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0098
Nwafor, C. U., Ogundeji, A. A., & Nwafor, I. C. (2021). Review of agricultural extension and advisory services in Sub-Saharan African countries. Progress with private sector involvement. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 61(3), 271-282. https://doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2021.01413 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2021.01413
Odoi, B. (2020). Performance of Levene's test with various residuals and correction factor for homogeneity of variance in single and factorial ANOVA-a simulation approach. In Advances in knowledge-based systems, data science, and cybersecurity: Research (Vol. 18, pp. 2-30).
Okello, D. M., Akite, I., Atube, F., Kalule, S. W., & Ongeng, D. (2023). Examining the relationship between farmers' characteristics and access to agricultural extension: Empirical evidence from northern Uganda. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 29(4), 439-461. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2022.2082500 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2022.2082500
Osabuohien, J., Okoedo-Okojie, D., & Erhaze, K. (2023). Determinants of information communication technology accessibility for community development activities among male and female agriculture extension workers in Edo State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 27(1), 9-12. https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v27i1.2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v27i1.2
Raj, S., & Garlapati, S. (2020). Extension and advisory services for climate-smart agriculture. In Global climate change: Resilient and smart agriculture (pp. 273-299). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9856-9_13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9856-9_13
Ribot, J. C., & Peluso, N. L. (2003). A theory of access. Rural Sociology, 68(2), 153-181. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2003.tb00133.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2003.tb00133.x
Rondinelli, D. A. (1981). Government decentralization in comparative perspective: Theory and practice in developing countries. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 47(2), 133-145. https://doi.org/10.1177/002085238004700205 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002085238004700205
Shrestha, N. (2021). Factor analysis as a tool for survey analysis. American Journal of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, 9(1), 4-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12691/ajams-9-1-2
https://doi.org/10.12691/ajams-9-1-2
Smoke, P. (2015). Rethinking decentralization: Assessing challenges to a popular public sector reform. Public Administration and Development, 35(2), 97-112. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1703 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.1703
Taherdoost, H. (2022). Designing a questionnaire for a research paper: A comprehensive guide to design and develop an effective questionnaire. Asian Journal of Managerial Science, 11(1), 8-16. https://doi.org/10.51983/ajms-2022.11.1.3087 DOI: https://doi.org/10.51983/ajms-2022.11.1.3087
Tibamanya, F. Y., Henningsen, A., & Milanzi, M. A. (2022). Drivers of and barriers to adoption of improved sunflower varieties amongst smallholder farmers in Singida, Tanzania: A double-hurdle approach. Q Open, 2(1), qoac008. https://doi.org/10.1093/qopen/qoac008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/qopen/qoac008
Torres, A. (2022). Exploring the adoption of technologies among beginning farmers in the specialty crops industry. Agricultural Finance Review, 82(3), 538-558. https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-04-2021-0052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-04-2021-0052
Tutz, G. (2022). Ordinal regression: A review and a taxonomy of models. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics, 14(2), e1545. https://doi.org/10.1002/wics.1545 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/wics.1545
URT. (1998). The policy paper on local government reform. President's Office - Regional Administration and Local Government, United Republic of Tanzania.
URT. (2020). Agricultural Sector Development Programme II (ASDP II) progress report. Ministry of Agriculture, United Republic of Tanzania.
Wang, X., & Cheng, Z. (2020). Cross-sectional studies: Strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations. Chest, 158(1), S65-S71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012
Wilson, S. T., Martin, R., & Madaha, R. (2025). The role of farmer field and business school (FFBS) in improving access to agricultural extension services to smallholder farmers in Iringa Rural District, Tanzania. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 43(4), 99-116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2025/v43i42722
https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2025/v43i42722
Witinok-Huber, R., Radil, S., Sarathchandra, D., & Nyaplue-Daywhea, C. (2021). Gender, place, and agricultural extension: A mixed-methods approach to understand farmer needs in Liberia. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 27(4), 553-572. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2021.1880453 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2021.1880453
World Bank. (2022). Reinvigorating extension services for sustainable agricultural transformation in Africa. World Bank.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 African Quarterly Social Science Review
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
