Reconceptualising operational viability in education-focused non-governmental organisations (NGOs): A theoretical and empirical analysis from Zambia

Maimbolwa Namuchana; Gift Masaiti; Kapambwe Mwelwa

doi:10.51867/AQSSR.3.1.37

Authors

Maimbolwa Namuchana The University of Zambia, Zambia Author https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2432-8654
Gift Masaiti The University of Zambia, Zambia Author https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8269-6499
Kapambwe Mwelwa The University of Zambia, Zambia Author https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5878-3971

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.51867/AQSSR.3.1.37

Keywords:

Education Non-Governmental Organisation, Operational Viability, Viability, Zambia

Abstract

Operational viability is viewed as an important factor in the performance and sustainability of education-orientated non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in low-income settings but is poorly theorised and under-investigated in practice. Based on evidence of mixed-methods in the case of Zambia, this article redefines operational viability as an emergent, relational and system-based capability and not a consequence of administrative efficiency per se. The research employed a convergent mixed-method design by analysing the data collected from a total of 222 participants (comprising 120 NGO employees and 102 Ministry of Education employees) in six education-orientated NGOs selected using purposive sampling. Exploratory factor analysis and multiple regression were used to analyse quantitative data, whereas thematic analysis was applied to qualitative interviews to identify the organisational and institutional processes that influence the delivery of programmes. The analysis is presented in the context of organisational resilience theory, institutional theory and systems thinking through the interaction of internal capacity, institutional alignment and systemic coherence to determine the viability of operations. The results show that the NGOs have comparably high internal governance, staffing, and performance management systems, but the operational viability is limited by the misalignment with the government planning processes, the implementation logics in line with donor-specified strategic incentives, and more comprehensive systemic resource bottlenecks. Such limitations reduce the possibilities for scalability, continuity, and long-term integration of NGO-supported programmes within national education systems. The study concludes that operational viability is not primarily a function of internal managerial competence but a governance condition shaped at the organisational-institutional interface. Programme sustainability depends on early co-design between NGOs and government actors, synchronisation of project cycles with public planning horizons, coordinated reporting and accountability systems, and institutionalised learning processes that extend beyond donor compliance. The article contributes to project and programme management scholarship by redefining operational viability as a system-level governance capability that enables programme continuity, scaling, and institutional integration in resource-constrained education systems.

References

Ansell, C., Sørensen, E., Torfing, J., & Trondal, J. (2024). Robust governance in turbulent times. Cambridge University Press.

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009433006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009433006

Arhin, A. A., Kumi, E., & Adam, M. A. S. (2018). Facing the bullet? Non-governmental organisations' responses to the changing aid landscape in Ghana. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 29(2), 348-360.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-018-9966-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-018-9966-1

Baldwin, E., Thiel, A., McGinnis, M., & Kellner, E. (2024). Empirical research on polycentric governance: Critical gaps and a framework for studying long‐term change. Policy Studies Journal, 52(2), 319-348. https://doi.org/10.1111/psj.12518 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/psj.12518

Bano, M., & Oberoi, Z. (2020). Embedding innovation in state systems: Lessons from Pratham in India (RISE Working Paper No. 20/058). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-WP_2020/058 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-WP_2020/058

Brophy, M. (2016). The role of NGOs in supporting education in Africa. In Education and NGOs (pp. 13-34).

https://doi.org/10.5040/9781474294973.ch-002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9781474294973.ch-002

Cabrita, P., Pereira, R., & Omar, M. N. (2021). Business model of nongovernmental organizations for the development of the education sector in Mozambique: A constructivist approach. JANUS.NET e-Journal of International Relations, 12, 137-159.

https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.12.2.9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26619/1647-7251.12.2.9

Capinding, A. T. (2024). Development and validation of instruments for assessing the impact of artificial intelligence on students in higher education. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 10(2), 197-211. https://doi.org/10.12973/ijem.10.2.997 DOI: https://doi.org/10.12973/ijem.10.2.997

Caratozzolo, P., Smith, C. J., Gomez, S., Moris, M. U., Nørgaard, B., Heiß, H. U., & Hadzilacos, R. (2024). A novel taxonomy for continuing engineering education. In IACEE2024: 19th World Conference on Continuing Engineering Education: Continuing engineering education (CEE) for a sustainable future (pp. 17-20). International Association for Continuing Engineering Education.

Chisom, O. N., Unachukwu, C. C., & Osawaru, B. (2024). STEM education advancements in African contexts: A comprehensive review. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 21(1), 145-160. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.21.1.2719 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.21.1.2719

Choto, P., Musakuro, R. N. N., Iwu, C. G., & Tengeh, R. K. (2023). Marketing for improved sustainability in nonprofit organizations. In V. Bobek & T. Horvat (Eds.), Global perspectives on non-governmental organizations. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105642 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105642

Chrine, C. H., & Kambikambi, T. T. (2020). Sustainability of universal free primary education policy in the face of declining education financing in Lusaka, Zambia. African Journal of Education and Practice, 6(2), 62-78.

Clerkin, B., & Quinn, M. (2018). Restricted funding: Restricting development? VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 30(6), 1348-1359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-018-00048-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-018-00048-6

Coleman, R. O., & Adim, V. C. (2019). Entrepreneurial proactiveness and organisational resilience in mobile telecommunication firms in Rivers State, Nigeria. Strategic Journal of Business & Change Management, 6(3), 454-465. https://doi.org/10.61426/sjbcm.v6i3.1329 DOI: https://doi.org/10.61426/sjbcm.v6i3.1329

Colenso, P., & Hai, A. Z. (2024). All hands-on deck: The critical role of non-state actors in basic education in low- and middle-income countries. Peabody Journal of Education, 99(5), 566-580. https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2024.2407248 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2024.2407248

Dadu, T. Z., Njeri, I., & Kemunto, A. (2024). Grant management practices and financial sustainability among non-governmental organizations in Taita-Taveta County: A case of World Vision Kenya. International Academic Journal of Economics and Finance, 4(2), 104-140.

Dass, S., Muir, K., & Rangan, V. K. (2020). Nonprofit boards: It is time to lift your gaze and see the system (Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 21-058). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3737045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3737045

Donessouné, F. G., Sossa, G. O., & Kouanda, S. (2023). Sustainability of community health programme using community-based organizations: A challenge for stakeholders. BMC Health Services Research, 23(1), 434.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-023-09320-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-023-09320-y

Eckel, P. D. (Ed.). (2023). Governing universities in post-Soviet countries: From a common start, 1991-2021. Cambridge University Press.

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009105224 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009105224

Elbers, W., & Arts, B. (2011). Keeping body and soul together: Southern NGOs' strategic responses to donor constraints. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 77(4), 713-732. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852311419388 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852311419388

Fagbemi, T., Dosumu, O., Adigun, R., Nakpodia, F., & Sakariyahu, R. (2025). Resilience and adaptation of third sector organizations during crisis situations: Insights from a West African economy. Financial Accountability & Management, 41(1), 89-115.

https://doi.org/10.1111/faam.12408 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/faam.12408

Fowler, A., & Mati, J. M. (2019). African gifting: Pluralising the concept of philanthropy. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 30(4), 724-737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-018-00079-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-018-00079-z

Fredriksen, B. (2023). Promise not kept: Universal primary education for all children in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 25(1), 62-79. https://doi.org/10.1108/JICE-08-2022-0024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JICE-08-2022-0024

Gul, K., & Morande, S. (2023). Factors influencing sustainability of non-governmental organizations in the developing world. SEISENSE Business Review, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.33215/sbr.v3i1.885 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33215/sbr.v3i1.885

Hamda, A. H., & Kebede, M. (2021). Determinants of project sustainability: The case of NGO projects in West Arsi Zone. European Business & Management, 7, 95-104. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ebm.20210704.11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ebm.20210704.11

Kachumi, M. M., Nawa, M., Mwanakatwe, J. M., Bwembya, R., Menda, D. M., Sichinga, K., & Shaikh, J. M. (2025). Financial sustainability of local NGOs funded by the Churches Health Association of Zambia in Zambia. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1), 1313. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05642-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05642-w

Kinsbergen, S., Koch, D. J., Plaisier, C., & Schulpen, L. (2022). Long-lasting, but not transformative: An ex-post sustainability study of development interventions of private development initiatives. The European Journal of Development Research, 34(1), 51-76.

https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-020-00346-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-020-00346-0

Knowles, C. (2025). Managing the unmeasurable: Developing a new performance management framework for the voluntary sector. Public Money & Management, 45(1), 72-81. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962.2023.2275594 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962.2023.2275594

Kurti, E., & Salavati, S. (2024). Towards a viable knowledge environment within an academic institution. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 37(6), 719-737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-024-09681-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-024-09681-3

Lechler, R. C., Lehner, P., Röösli, F., & Huemann, M. (2022). The project-oriented organisation through the lens of viable systems. Project Leadership and Society, 3, 100072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plas.2022.100072 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plas.2022.100072

Lee, H. (2017). Sustainability in international aid programs: Identification of working concepts of sustainability and its contributing factors. International Journal of Social Science Studies, 5, 7-15. https://doi.org/10.11114/ijsss.v5i1.2055 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11114/ijsss.v5i1.2055

Loblay, V., Garvey, K., Shiell, A., Kavanagh, S., & Hawe, P. (2022). Can adaptation to extraordinary times teach us about ways to strengthen community-based chronic disease prevention? Insights from the COVID-19 pandemic. Critical Public Health, 32(1), 127-138.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2021.2006147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2021.2006147

Makeche, E. M., & Chowa, T. (2023). A study of the factors that determine local NGO financial sustainability: A case of CIDRZ. International Journal of Innovation Science and Research Technology, 8(4).

Makuwa, J. (2004). Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and participatory development in basic education in Malawi. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 6(2), 113-124, https://doi.org/10.52214/cice.v6i2.11382 DOI: https://doi.org/10.52214/cice.v6i2.11382

Marques, T. R., & Martins, B. V. (2025). Value in sustainability-oriented innovation ecosystems: Integrating the relational view. International Journal of Business and Management, 20(6), 102. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v20n6p102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v20n6p102

McLean, R., Gargani, J., & Chambers, R. (2019). Scaling impact: Innovation for the public good. Routledge.

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429468025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429468025

Meijs, L., & Koolen-Maas, S. (2022). Civil society and (re)embedding volunteering. In A research agenda for civil society (pp. 161-172). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800378155.00020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800378155.00020

Menashy, F., & Zakharia, Z. (2022). Reconsidering partnerships in education in emergencies. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 30, 144. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.30.7008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.30.7008

Midgley, G., & Lindhult, E. (2021). A systems perspective on systemic innovation. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 38(5), 635-670.

https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.2819 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.2819

Mtika, P., & Sosu, E. M. (2025). Understanding the paradox of primary teacher shortage in low-income countries: Insights from Malawi. British Educational Research Journal, 00, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.70065 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.70065

Mubangizi, B. C., & Adekanla, N. (2024). Sustainable livelihoods in rural Uganda-Programmes, projects, and participants in the face of pandemics. Lex Localis - Journal of Local Self-Government, 22(4), 124-149. https://doi.org/10.52152/22.4.124-149 DOI: https://doi.org/10.52152/22.4.124-149(2024)

Mundy, K., Haggerty, M., Sivasubramaniam, M., Cherry, S., & Maclure, R. (2010). Civil society, basic education, and sector-wide aid: Insights from Sub-Saharan Africa. Development in Practice, 20(4-5), 484-497. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614521003763046 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09614521003763046

Ndombi, C. L. (2021). Project exit strategies, stakeholders management, and project sustainability of donor-funded livelihood projects in Kilifi County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi).

Ndombi, L., Kyalo, D. N., & Mulwa, A. S. (2020). Influence of support service linkage strategies on sustainability of donor-funded livelihood projects in Kilifi County, Kenya. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 9(4), 404-418.

https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v9i4.771 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v9i4.771

Nelles, J., Vorley, T., & Brown, A. (2021). From systems change to systems changed: Assuming a systems-based approach in response to crisis. In Productivity and the pandemic (pp. 250-262). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800374607.00024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800374607.00024

Nevedal, A. L., Widerquist, M. A. O., Reardon, C. M., Arasim, M., Jackson, G. L., White, B., & Damschroder, L. J. (2024). Understanding pathways from implementation to sustainment: A longitudinal mixed-methods analysis of promising practices implemented in the Veterans Health Administration. Implementation Science, 19(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-024-01361-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-024-01361-z

Nomsenge, S. O. (2018). Education NGOs in Makhanda, South Africa: A zero sum of philanthropy and survival. Africanus: Journal of Development Studies, 48(2). https://doi.org/10.25159/0304-615X/4895 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25159/0304-615X/4895

Okine, S. A. (2022). Non-governmental organization/non-profit organization impact on education policy in Ghana. Journal of Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences, 16(1), 266-283. https://doi.org/10.5590/JSBHS.2022.16.1.20 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5590/JSBHS.2022.16.1.20

Ostrom, E. (2019). Institutional rational choice: An assessment of the institutional analysis and development framework. In Theories of the policy process (2nd ed., pp. 21-64). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367274689-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367274689-2

Perlman Robinson, J., Curtiss Wyss, M., & Hannahan, P. (2021). Real-time scaling lab guidelines: Implementing a participatory, adaptive learning approach to scaling. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3957343 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3957343

Poncin, E. (2024). Worthy of continued support? The paradox of community-driven development at the World Bank. Studies in Comparative International Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12116-024-09449-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12116-024-09449-9

Pryce, J. (2021). The interplay of organisational resilience and organisational culture: A discussion paper. Journal of Resilient Economies, 1(2), 19-24. https://doi.org/10.25120/jre.1.2.2021.3870 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25120/jre.1.2.2021.3870

Quendler, E. (2017). Organisational resilience: Building business value in a changing world. Journal for International Business and Entrepreneurship Development, 10(2), 101-119. https://doi.org/10.1504/JIBED.2017.084301 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/JIBED.2017.084301

Reinish, A. E. (2020). Promises and problems: Promoting deeper learning in a high-performing education system. ProQuest LLC.

Robinson, R. S., Brass, J. N., Shermeyer, A., & Grossman, N. (2024). Reported effects of non-governmental organizations in health and education service provision: The role of NGO-government relations and other factors. Development Policy Review, 42(1), e12737.

https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12737 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12737

Ruel, S., Baz, J. E., Ivanov, D., & Das, A. (2021). Supply chain viability: Conceptualisation, measurement, and nomological validation. Annals of Operations Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-03974-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-03974-9

Rydzewski, R. (2024). Exploring the relevance of organizational resilience in management research: Literature review. Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Śląskiej. Organizacja i Zarządzanie.

Silberstein, J., & Spivack, M. (2023). Applying systems thinking to education: Using the RISE systems framework to diagnose education systems. Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-RI_2023/051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-RI_2023/051

Singh, S., Martins, A., & Tefera, O. (2022). Nonprofit organisational resilience: Proposing a conceptual adaptive capacity framework. Acta Commercii, 22(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.4102/ac.v22i1.1077 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/ac.v22i1.1077

Sinha, R., & Ola, A. (2021). Enhancing business community disaster resilience: A structured literature review of the role of dynamic capabilities. Continuity & Resilience Review, 3(2), 132-148. https://doi.org/10.1108/CRR-03-2021-0009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/CRR-03-2021-0009

Spivack, M. (2021). Applying systems thinking to education: The RISE systems framework. Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE). https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-RI_2021/028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-RI_2021/028

Struben, J., & Kapmeier, F. (2023). From low-hanging fruit to high-impact sustainability transformations: Unpacking dynamics of intra- and interorganizational capability traps. System Dynamics Review, 39(4), 404-431. https://doi.org/10.1002/sdr.1742 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sdr.1742

Țiclău, T., Hințea, C., & Trofin, C. (2021). Resilient leadership: A qualitative study on factors influencing organizational resilience and adaptive response to adversity. Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 17(SI), 127-143. https://doi.org/10.24193/tras.SI2021.7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24193/tras.SI2021.7

Trischler, J., & Westman Trischler, J. (2022). Design for experience-A public service design approach in the age of digitalization. Public Management Review, 24(8), 1251-1270. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2021.1899272 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2021.1899272

Tugyetwena, M. (2023). A literature review of the relationship between governance, funding strategy and sustainability of non-government organizations. International NGO Journal, 18(2), 10-19. https://doi.org/10.5897/INGOJ2023.0365 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/INGOJ2023.0365

Volmink, J., & van der Elst, L. (2017). The evolving role of 21st century education NGOs in South Africa: Challenges and opportunities. National Education Collaboration Trust.

Weaver, M., Tan, H., & Crossan, K. (2021). Systems and systemic approaches for attaining the SDGs across partnerships. In Partnerships for the goals (pp. 1247-1260). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95963-4_92 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95963-4_92

Williams, G., Owen, O., Duncan, A., Kingsmill, W., & Paterson, A. (2019). DFID governance programming in Nigeria: What difference has thinking and working politically made in practice? Development Policy Review, 37, O33-O49. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12438 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12438

Witmer, H., & Mellinger, M. S. (2016). Organizational resilience: Nonprofit organizations' response to change. Work, 54(2), 255-265.

https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-162303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-162303